Highlights d Lung ACE2 levels do not vary by age or sex, but smokers exhibit upregulated ACE2 d ACE2 is expressed in several lung cell types, including the secretory lineage d Chronic smoking triggers the expansion of ACE2 + secretory cells d ACE2 is also upregulated by viral infections and interferon exposure

Ninety-seven percent of drug-indication pairs that are tested in clinical trials in oncology never advance to receive U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval. While lack of efficacy and dose-limiting toxicities are the most common causes of trial failure, the reason(s) why so many new drugs encounter these problems is not well understood. Using CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis, we investigated a set of cancer drugs and drug targets in various stages of clinical testing. We show that—contrary to previous reports obtained predominantly with RNA interference and small-molecule inhibitors—the proteins ostensibly targeted by these drugs are nonessential for cancer cell proliferation. Moreover, the efficacy of each drug that we tested was unaffected by the loss of its putative target, indicating that these compounds kill cells via off-target effects. By applying a genetic target-deconvolution strategy, we found that the mischaracterized anticancer agent OTS964 is actually a potent inhibitor of the cyclin-dependent kinase CDK11 and that multiple cancer types are addicted to CDK11 expression. We suggest that stringent genetic validation of the mechanism of action of cancer drugs in the preclinical setting may decrease the number of therapies tested in human patients that fail to provide any clinical benefit.

The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has infected more than 600,000 people and has overwhelmed hospital systems around the world. However, the factors mediating fatal SARS-CoV-2 infections are poorly understood. Here, we show that cigarette smoke causes a dose-dependent upregulation of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2), the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, in rodent and human lungs. Using single-cell sequencing data, we demonstrate that ACE2 is expressed in a subset of epithelial cells that line the respiratory tract, including goblet cells, club cells, and alveolar type 2 cells. Chronic smoke exposure triggers a protective expansion of mucus-secreting goblet cells and a concomitant increase in ACE2 expression. In contrast, quitting smoking causes a decrease in lung ACE2 levels. Taken together, these results may partially explain why smokers are particularly likely to develop severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, and they suggest that quitting smoking could lessen coronavirus susceptibility.

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Aneuploidy is a ubiquitous feature of human tumors, but the acquisition of aneuploidy is typically detrimental to cellular fitness. To investigate how aneuploidy could contribute to tumor growth, we triggered periods of chromosomal instability (CIN) in human cells and then exposed them to a variety of different culture environments. While chromosomal instability was universally detrimental under normal growth conditions, we discovered that transient CIN reproducibly accelerated the ability of cells to adapt and thrive in the presence of anti-cancer therapeutic agents. Single-cell sequencing revealed that these drug-resistant populations recurrently developed specific whole-chromosome gains and losses. We independently derived one aneuploidy that was frequently recovered in cells exposed to paclitaxel, and we found that this chromosome loss event was sufficient to decrease paclitaxel sensitivity. Finally, we demonstrated that intrinsic levels of CIN correlate with poor responses to a variety of systemic therapies in a collection of patient-derived xenografts. In total, our results show that while chromosomal instability generally antagonizes cell fitness, it also provides phenotypic plasticity to cancer cells that can allow them to adapt to diverse stressful environments. Moreover, our findings suggest that aneuploidy may function as an under-explored cause of therapy failure in human tumors.

Most cancers exhibit aneuploidy, but its functional significance in tumor development is controversial. Here, we describe ReDACT ( Re storing D isomy in A neuploid cells using C RISPR T argeting), a set of chromosome engineering tools that allow us to eliminate specific aneuploidies from cancer genomes. Using ReDACT, we created a panel of isogenic cells that have or lack common aneuploidies, and we demonstrate that trisomy of chromosome 1q is required for malignant growth in cancers harboring this alteration. Mechanistically, gaining chromosome 1q increases the expression of MDM4 and suppresses p53 signaling, and we show that TP53 mutations are mutually-exclusive with 1q aneuploidy in human cancers. Thus, tumor cells can be dependent on specific aneuploidies, raising the possibility that these “aneuploidy addictions” could be targeted as a therapeutic strategy.