Autoantibodies to components of apoptotic cells, such as anti-perlecan antibodies, contribute to rejection in organ transplant recipients. However, mechanisms of immunization to apoptotic components remain largely uncharacterized. We used large-scale proteomics, with validation by electron microscopy and biochemical methods, to compare the protein profiles of apoptotic bodies and apoptotic exosome-like vesicles, smaller extracellular vesicles released by endothelial cells downstream of caspase-3 activation. We identified apoptotic exosome-like vesicles as a central trigger for production of anti-perlecan antibodies and acceleration of rejection. Unlike apoptotic bodies, apoptotic exosome-like vesicles triggered the production of anti-perlecan antibodies in naïve mice and enhanced anti-perlecan antibody production and allograft inflammation in mice transplanted with an MHC (major histocompatibility complex)-incompatible aortic graft. The 20S proteasome core was active within apoptotic exosome-like vesicles and controlled their immunogenic activity. Finally, we showed that proteasome activity in circulating exosome-like vesicles increased after vascular injury in mice. These findings open new avenues for predicting and controlling maladaptive humoral responses to apoptotic cell components that enhance the risk of rejection after transplantation.

Objective. Interleukin-1␤ (IL-1␤) and tumor necrosis factor ␣ (TNF␣) stimulate chondrocyte matrix catabolic responses, thereby compromising cartilage homeostasis in osteoarthritis (OA). AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which regulates energy homeostasis and cellular metabolism, also exerts antiinflammatory effects in multiple tissues. This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that AMPK activity limits chondrocyte matrix catabolic responses to IL-1␤ and TNF␣.Methods. Expression of AMPK subunits was examined, and AMPK␣ activity was ascertained by the phosphorylation status of AMPK␣ Thr 172 in human knee articular chondrocytes and cartilage by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Procatabolic responses to IL-1␤ and TNF␣, such as release of glycosaminoglycan, nitric oxide, and matrix metalloproteinases 3 and 13 were determined by dimethylmethylene blue assay, Griess reaction, and Western blotting, respectively, in cartilage explants and chondrocytes with and without knockdown of AMPK␣ by small interfering RNA.Results. Normal human knee articular chondrocytes expressed AMPK␣1, ␣2, ␤1, ␤2, and ␥1 subunits. Interleukin-1␤ (IL-1␤), tumor necrosis factor ␣ (TNF␣), and certain other proinflammatory cytokines stimulate chondrocyte responses that promote catabolism of type II collagen and proteoglycans (PGs), thereby compromising cartilage extracellular matrix integrity and tissue homeostasis in osteoarthritis (OA) and inflammatory arthritides (1,2). For example, IL-1␤ and TNF␣ induce expression of matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP-3) and MMP-13, induce activation of aggrecanases including ADAMTS-5, and stimulate inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and the generation of nitric oxide (NO), a suppressor of PG synthesis (1-3).Recently, the serine/threonine protein kinase AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was observed to exert antiinflammatory effects in tissues other than cartilage, mediated in part by suppression of NF-B activation (4-10). AMPK is a "super-regulator" of

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Stem cell therapy modulates not only the local microenvironment of the brain but also the systemic immune responses. We explored the impact of human multipotent adult progenitor cells (MAPC) modulating splenic activation and peripheral immune responses after ischemic stroke. Hundred twenty-six Long-Evans adult male rats underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Twenty-four hours later, they received IV MAPC or saline treatment. At 3 days after infusion, RNA was isolated from the injured cortex and spleen for microarray analysis. Spleen mass, splenocyte phenotype, and releasing cytokines were measured. Serum cytokines, MAPC biodistribution, brain lesion sizes and neurofunctional deficits were compared in rats treated with MAPC or saline with and without spleens. Stroked animals treated with MAPC exhibited genes that more closely resembled animals with sham surgery. Gene categories downregulated by MAPC included leukocyte activation, antigen presentation, and immune effector processing, associated with the signaling pathways regulated by TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IFN-γ within the brain. MAPC treatment restored spleen mass reduction caused by stroke, elevated Treg cells within the spleen, increased IL-10 and decreased IL-1β released by splenocytes. MAPC reduced IL-6 and IL-1β and upregulated IL-10 serum levels. Compared with saline, MAPC enhance stroke recovery in rats with intact spleens but had no effects in rats without spleens. MAPC restores expression of multiple genes and pathways involved in immune and inflammatory responses after stroke. Immunomodulation of the splenic response by the intravenous administration of MAPC may create a more favorable environment for brain repair after stroke. Stem Cells 2017;35:1290-1302.

Background The use of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) as a cellular therapy for various diseases, such as graft-versus-host-disease, diabetes, ischemic cardiomyopathy, and Crohn's disease has produced promising results in early-phase clinical trials. However, for widespread application and use in later phase studies, manufacture of these cells needs to be cost effective, safe, and reproducible. Current methods of manufacturing in flasks or cell factories are labor-intensive, involve a large number of open procedures, and require prolonged culture times. Methods We evaluated the Quantum Cell Expansion system for the expansion of large numbers of MSCs from unprocessed bone marrow in a functionally closed system and compared the results to a flask-based method currently in clinical trials. Results After only two passages, we were able to expand a mean of 6.6×108 MSCs from 25 mL of bone marrow reproducibly. The mean expansion time was 21 days, and cells obtained were able to differentiate into all three lineages: chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and adipocytes. The Quantum was able to generate the target cell number of 2.0×108 cells in an average of 9-fewer days and in half the number of passages required during flask-based expansion. We estimated the Quantum would involve 133 open procedures versus 54,400 in flasks when manufacturing for a clinical trial. Quantum-expanded MSCs infused into an ischemic stroke rat model were therapeutically active. Discussion The Quantum is a novel method of generating high numbers of MSCs in less time and at lower passages when compared to flasks. In the Quantum, the risk of contamination is substantially reduced due to the substantial decrease in open procedures.

Although mononuclear cells (MNCs) from bone marrow are being investigated in phase I clinical trials in stroke patients, dose response, therapeutic time window and biodistribiton have not been well-characterized in animal stroke models. Long Evans rats underwent common carotid artery/middle cerebral artery occlusion (CCA/MCAo) and 24 hrs later were randomized to receive saline IV or a bone marrow aspiration followed by an IV infusion of autologous separated MNCs (1 million, 10 million or 30 million cells/kg). In another experiment, rats underwent CCAo/MCAo and were randomized at 24 hrs, 72 hrs or 7 days after stroke to receive a saline injection or 10 million/kg MNCs. All animals were evaluated on the cylinder and corner tests up to 28 days. MNCs were tracked using Q-dot nanocrystals to monitor biodistribution. Animals treated with MNCs at 10 million and 30 million cells/kg at 24 hrs after stroke had significant reductions in neurological deficits and lesion size compared to saline controls or animals treated with 1 million cells/kg. There was no difference in neurological deficits in the 10 and 30 million cell/kg groups at 28 days. Animals treated with MNCs at 72 hrs but not at 7 days showed a significant reduction in neurological deficits by 28 days. Labeled MNCs were found in the brain, spleen, lung, liver, and kidney at 1 hr and exponentially decreased over the ensuing week. In conclusion, we found a maximum reduction in neurological deficits at 10 and 30 million cells/kg and a therapeutic time window up to 72 hrs after stroke.

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major risk factor for chronic renal failure. Here, we characterize the different modes of programmed cell death in the tubular and microvascular compartments during the various stages of IRI-induced AKI, and their relative importance to renal fibrogenesis. We performed unilateral renal artery clamping for 30 minutes and contralateral nephrectomy in wild-type mice (C57BL/6) or caspase-3 mice. Compared with their wild-type counterparts, caspase-3 mice in the early stage of AKI had high urine cystatin C levels, tubular injury scores, and serum creatinine levels. Electron microscopy revealed evidence of tubular epithelial cell necrosis in caspase-3 mice, and immunohistochemistry showed upregulation of the necroptosis marker receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) in renal cortical sections. Western blot analysis further demonstrated enhanced levels of phosphorylated RIPK3 in the kidneys of caspase-3 mice. In contrast, caspase-3 mice had less microvascular congestion and activation in the early and extension phases of AKI. In the long term (3 weeks after IRI), caspase-3 mice had reduced microvascular rarefaction and renal fibrosis, as well as decreased expression of -smooth muscle actin and reduced collagen deposition within peritubular capillaries. Moreover, caspase-3 mice exhibited signs of reduced tubular ischemia, including lower tubular expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 and improved tubular injury scores. These results establish the pivotal importance of caspase-3 in regulating microvascular endothelial cell apoptosis and renal fibrosis after IRI. These findings also demonstrate the predominant role of microvascular over tubular injury as a driver of progressive renal damage and fibrosis after IRI.

We hypothesize that the spleen may initially contract after ischemic stroke followed by a re-expansion and that it contributes to ischemic brain injury mediated via cellular components. Characterization of the splenic response after stroke and its contribution to cerebral ischemic injury has the potential to provide new opportunities for the development of novel stroke therapies.