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A theoretical model for deriving the origin of emotional functions from first principles is introduced. The model, called "Emotional Model Of the Theoretical Interpretations Of Neuroprocessing", abbreviated as the "EMO-TION", derives how emotional context can be evolved from innate responses. It is based on a biological framework for autonomous systems with minimal assumptions on the system or what emotion is. The first phase of the model (EMO-TION-I) addresses the progressive abstraction of the sensory input signals within relevant context of the environment to produce the appropriate output actions for survival. It uses a probabilistic feedforward and feedback neural network with multiple adaptable gains, self-adaptive learning rate and modifiable connection weights to produce a self-organizing, selfadaptive system incorporating associative reinforcement learning rules for conditioning and fixation of circuitry into hardwire to form innate responses such that contextual feel of sensation is evolved as an emergent property known as emotional feel.

A computational model of emotion is derived (using minimalistic assumptions) to quantify how emotions are evolved to estimate the accuracy of an internally generated brain model that predicts the external world. In this model, emotion is an emergent property serving as a selfderived feedback that monitors the accuracy of the internal model via the discrepancy (error measure) between the (internal) subjective reality and (external) objective reality-reality-check subconsciously. Minimization of error (computed by the ''gain'' toward the desired outcome) will optimize congruency between internal and external worlds-resulting in happy emotion. Unhappy emotion is resulted from the discrepancy between internal and external worlds, which can serve as feedback for self-correction to minimize the ''loss'' (error) between desired and actual outcomes. Unhappiness provides the internal guide to selfidentify whether the cause of error is due to input (sensory perception) error, output (motor execution) error, or modeling (internal model) error. Experimental validation of the hypothesis using the ultimatum game paradigm confirmed the inverse proportional relationship of anger to perceived gain (or direct proportionality to loss) that estimates the discrepancy between what we want and what we get. It also characterizes specific emotional biases by shifting the emotional intensity curve quantitatively.

Abstract:The second phase of the "EMOTION-II" model ("Emotional Model Of the Theoretical Interpretations Of Neuroprocessing") introduces the theoretical framework for the evolution of emotion as an internal measure of modeling errors (discrepancy signals) for assessing the degree-of-fit (congruency) between internal model and external world in autonomous control systems. It is derived based on the inevitable real-world consequence that modeling errors often occur in the internal model that represents the external world. When the contextual abstraction of the external world is compared with the internal world model, the discrepancy between the two models (objective reality and subjective reality) serves as a feedback for self-corrective actions. The assessment and recognition of these internally generated signals representing modeling errors of expectancy (and conversely, congruency between the two realities) form the basis for emotion formation in animals and other self-correcting autonomous control systems.

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This study provides experimental evidence that there is temporal decoupling between the hemodynamic responses of oxy-and deoxy-hemoglobin (Hb) as detected by functional nearinfrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Using 64 spatially distributed optrodes to record motor cortical activities during a free arm movement task (right-left and front-back movements), we detected that the temporal profile of oxy-and deoxy-Hb responses are desynchronized and decoupled (i.e., oxy-and deoxy-Hb levels do not rise and fall at the same time). We correlated four different measures of hemodynamic profiles with the arm movements, namely, oxy-(HbO 2 ) and deoxy-hemoglobin (Hb) and their summation (HbO 2 + Hb) and difference (HbO 2 -Hb) signals. These measures correspond to the changes in oxygen delivery, oxygen extraction, total blood volume delivered, and total oxygenation with specific movement directions, respectively. They revealed different components of the hemodynamic response in a localized neuronal population in the motor cortex. The results suggested that, by using these four measures, oxygen delivery and oxygen extraction can be coupled in one movement direction, but decoupled in another movement direction for the same human subject executing the same movement task. Oxygen delivery and oxygen extraction do not always co-vary together temporally. Thus, using a single measure of oxygen delivery or extraction alone may not be sufficient to determine whether the cortical area is activated or deactivated. Rather, a combination of all four measures of hemodynamic signals that represent temporal coupling and decoupling of oxygen delivery and extraction is needed to differentiate the temporal profiles of neural activation and deactivation. It demonstrated that different hemodynamic measures can reveal temporally decoupled activation/deactivation patterns differentially during the right-left and front-back motor task. Therefore, relying on a single measure of deoxy-Hb may be insufficient to characterize the neural responses without the oxy-Hb measure. Orthogonal arm

This study aims to identify the acute effects of physical exercise on specific cognitive functions immediately following an increase in cardiovascular activity. Stair-climbing exercise is used to increase the cardiovascular output of human subjects. The color-naming Stroop Test was used to identify the cognitive improvements in executive function with respect to processing speed and error rate. The study compared the Stroop results before and immediately after exercise and before and after nonexercise, as a control. The results show that there is a significant increase in processing speed and a reduction in errors immediately after less than 30 min of aerobic exercise. The improvements are greater for the incongruent than for the congruent color tests. This suggests that physical exercise induces a better performance in a task that requires resolving conflict (or interference) than a task that does not. There is no significant improvement for the nonexercise control trials. This demonstrates that an increase in cardiovascular activity has significant acute effects on improving the executive function that requires conflict resolution (for the incongruent color tests) immediately following aerobic exercise more than similar executive functions that do not require conflict resolution or involve the attention-inhibition process (for the congruent color tests).

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