Patterns of ecotypic variation constitute some of the few ÔrulesÕ known to modern biology. Here, we examine several well-known ecogeographical rules, especially those pertaining to body size in contemporary, historical and fossil taxa. We review the evidence showing that rules of geographical variation in response to variation in the local environment can also apply to morphological changes through time in response to climate change. These rules hold at various time scales, ranging from contemporary to geological time scales. Patterns of body size variation in response to climate change at the individual species level may also be detected at the community level. The patterns underlying ecotypic variation are complex and highly context-dependent, reducing the Ôpredictive-powerÕ of ecogeographical rules. This is especially true when considering the increasing impact of human activities on the environment. Nonetheless, ecogeographical rules may help interpret the likely influences of anthropogenic climate change on ecosystems. Global climate change has already influenced the body size of several contemporary species, and will likely have an even greater impact on animal communities in the future. For this reason, we highlight and emphasise the importance of museum specimens and the continued need for documenting the earth's biological diversity.

Large herbivores and carnivores (the megafauna) have been in a state of decline and extinction since the Late Pleistocene, both on land and more recently in the oceans. Much has been written on the timing and causes of these declines, but only recently has scientific attention focused on the consequences of these declines for ecosystem function. Here, we review progress in our understanding of how megafauna affect ecosystem physical and trophic structure, species composition, biogeochemistry, and climate, drawing on special features of PNAS and Ecography that have been published as a result of an international workshop on this topic held in Oxford in 2014. Insights emerging from this work have consequences for our understanding of changes in biosphere function since the Late Pleistocene and of the functioning of contemporary ecosystems, as well as offering a rationale and framework for scientifically informed restoration of megafaunal function where possible and appropriate.For hundreds of millions of years, an abundance of large animals, the megafauna, was a prominent feature of the land and oceans. However, in the last few tens of thousands of years-a blink of an eye on many evolutionary and biogeochemical timescales-something dramatic happened to Earth's ecology; megafauna largely disappeared from vast areas, rendered either actually or functionally extinct (1, 2). Only in small parts of the world do megafauna exist at diversities anything close to their previous state, and, in many of these remaining regions, they are in a state of functional decline through population depletion and range contraction. In the oceans, a similar process has occurred over the last few hundred years: although there has been little absolute extinction, there has been a dramatic decline in the abundance of whales and large fish through overharvesting (3). Both on land and in oceans, declines continue today (4-7).Homo sapiens evolved and dispersed in a world teeming with giant creatures. Our earliest art forms, such as the haunting and mesmerizing Late Pleistocene cave paintings of Lascaux and Altamira, show that megafauna had a profound impact on the psyche and spirituality of our ancestors. To humans past and modern, they indicate resources, danger, power, and charisma, but, beyond these impacts, such large animals have profound and distinct effects on the nature and functioning of the ecosystems they inhabit.Martin (8) first posited a major human role in past megafaunal disappearances, and, since then, much has been written on their patterns and causes and the relative importance of human effects, climate change, and other factors (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15). Only recently has work begun to address the environmental consequences of this dramatic transition from a megafaunal to a nonmegafaunal world on Earth's ecology, as manifested through vegetation cover (16), plant-animal interactions (17), ecosystem structure (16, 18), trophic interactions (7), fire regimes (19), biogeochemical cycling (20), and climate (21,22).In this pap...

Abstract. The purpose of this data set was to compile body mass information for all mammals on Earth so that we could investigate the patterns of body mass seen across geographic and taxonomic space and evolutionary time. We were interested in the heritability of body size across taxonomic groups (How conserved is body mass within a genus, family, and order?), in the overall pattern of body mass across continents (Do the moments and other descriptive statistics remain the same across geographic space?), and over evolutionary time (How quickly did body mass patterns iterate on the patterns seen today? Were the Pleistocene extinctions size specific on each continent, and did these events coincide with the arrival of man?). These data are also part of a larger project that seeks to integrate body mass patterns across very diverse taxa (NCEAS Working Group on Body Size in Ecology and Paleoecology: linking pattern and process across space, time, and taxonomic scales). We began with the updated version of D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder's taxonomic list of all known Recent mammals of the world (N ϭ 4629 species) to which we added status, distribution, and body mass estimates compiled from the primary and secondary literature. Whenever possible, we used an average of male and female body mass, which was in turn averaged over multiple localities to arrive at our species body mass values. The sources are line referenced in the main data set, with the actual references appearing in a table within the metadata. Mammals have individual records for each continent they occur on. Note that our data set is more than an amalgamation of smaller compilations. Although we relied heavily on a data set for Chiroptera by K. E. Jones (N ϭ 905), the CRC handbook of Mammalian Body Mass (N ϭ 688), and a data set compiled for South America by P. Marquet (N ϭ 505), these represent less than half the records in the current database. The remainder are derived from more than 150 other sources. Furthermore, we include a comprehensive late Pleistocene species assemblage for Africa, North and South America, and Australia (an additional 230 species). ''Late Pleistocene'' is defined as approximately 11 ka for Africa, North and South America, and as 50 ka for Australia, because these times predate anthropogenic impacts on mammalian fauna. Estimates contained within this data set represent a generalized species value, averaged across sexes and geographic space. Consequently, these data are not appropriate for asking population-level questions where the integration of body mass with specific environmental conditions is important. All extant orders of mammals are included, as well as several archaic groups (N ϭ 4859 species). Because some species are found on more than one continent (particularly Chiroptera), there are 5731 entries. We have body masses for the following: Artiodactyla (280

The extinction of dinosaurs at the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary was the seminal event that opened the door for the subsequent diversification of terrestrial mammals. Our compilation of maximum body size at the ordinal level by sub-epoch shows a near-exponential increase after the K/Pg. On each continent, the maximum size of mammals leveled off after 40 million years ago and thereafter remained approximately constant. There was remarkable congruence in the rate, trajectory, and upper limit across continents, orders, and trophic guilds, despite differences in geological and climatic history, turnover of lineages, and ecological variation. Our analysis suggests that although the primary driver for the evolution of giant mammals was diversification to fill ecological niches, environmental temperature and land area may have ultimately constrained the maximum size achieved.

urine ("amherat"); sheltered in caves and rock crevices, these deposits persist for tens Microevolutionary changes in the body size of the bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) of t h o u s a~~d s of years. T h e p r e s e r l~a t i o~~ of since the last glacial maximum were estimated from measurements of fecal pellets plant and anillla1 remains in the deposits is preserved in paleomiddens from the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau of the United excellent, allo~ving reconstruction of for~ner States. The changes closely track regional temperature fluctuations simulated by the distributions ( 3 . 9) anil diverse morpl~olog-Community Climate Model of the National Center for Atmospheric Research and also ical, geochemical, and even genetic analythose estimated from deuterium isotope ratios of plant cellulose recovered from paleo-

Although it is commonly assumed that closely related animals are similar in body size, the degree of similarity has not been examined across the taxonomic hierarchy. Moreover, little is known about the variation or consistency of body size patterns across geographic space or evolutionary time. Here, we draw from a data set of terrestrial, nonvolant mammals to quantify and compare patterns across the body size spectrum, the taxonomic hierarchy, continental space, and evolutionary time. We employ a variety of statistical techniques including "sib-sib" regression, phylogenetic autocorrelation, and nested ANOVA. We find an extremely high resemblance (heritability) of size among congeneric species for mammals over approximately 18 g; the result is consistent across the size spectrum. However, there is no significant relationship among the body sizes of congeneric species for mammals under approximately 18 g. We suspect that life-history and ecological parameters are so tightly constrained by allometry at diminutive size that animals can only adapt to novel ecological conditions by modifying body size. The overall distributions of size for each continental fauna and for the most diverse orders are quantitatively similar for North America, South America, and Africa, despite virtually no overlap in species composition. Differences in ordinal composition appear to account for quantitative differences between continents. For most mammalian orders, body size is highly conserved, although there is extensive overlap at all levels of the taxonomic hierarchy. The body size distribution for terrestrial mammals apparently was established early in the Tertiary, and it has remained remarkably constant over the past 50 Ma and across the major continents. Lineages have diversified in size to exploit environmental opportunities but only within limits set by allometric, ecological, and evolutionary constraints.

Key Words megacity biogeochemistry, city succession, industrial metabolism, air pollution, system simulations s Abstract This paper reviews the available data and models on energy and material flows through the world's 25 largest cities. Throughput is categorized as stored, transformed, or passive for the major flow modes. The aggregate, fuel, food, water, and air cycles are all examined. Emphasis is placed on atmospheric pathways because the data are abundant. Relevant models of urban energy and material flows, demography, and atmospheric chemistry are discussed. Earth system-level loops from cities to neighboring ecosystems are identified. Megacities are somewhat independent of their immediate environment for food, fuel, and aggregate inputs, but all are constrained by their regional environment for supplying water and absorbing wastes. We elaborate on analogies with biological metabolism and ecosystem succession as useful conceptual frameworks for addressing urban ecological problems. We conclude that whereas data are numerous for some individual cities, cross-cutting compilations are lacking in biogeochemical analysis and modeling. Synthesis of the existing information will be a crucial first step. Cross-cutting field research and integrated, multidisciplinary simulations will be necessary.

Ecosystem properties result in part from the characteristics of individual organisms. How these individual traits scale to impact ecosystem‐level processes is currently unclear. Because metabolism is a fundamental process underlying many individual‐ and population‐level variables, it provides a mechanism for linking individual characteristics with large‐scale processes. Here we use metabolism and ecosystem thermodynamics to scale from physiology to individual biomass production and population‐level energy use. Temperature‐corrected rates of individual‐level biomass production show the same body‐size dependence across a wide range of aerobic eukaryotes, from unicellular organisms to mammals and vascular plants. Population‐level energy use for both mammals and plants are strongly influenced by both metabolism and thermodynamic constraints on energy exchange between trophic levels. Our results show that because metabolism is a fundamental trait of organisms, it not only provides a link between individual‐ and ecosystem‐level processes, but can also highlight other important factors constraining ecological structure and dynamics.