The 70kD heat shock proteins (Hsp70s) are ubiquitous molecular chaperones essential for cellular protein folding and proteostasis. Each Hsp70 has two functional domains: a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) that binds and hydrolyzes ATP, and a substrate-binding domain (SBD) that binds extended polypeptides. NBD and SBD interact little when in ADP; however, ATP binding allosterically couples the polypeptide- and ATP-binding sites. ATP binding promotes polypeptide release; polypeptide rebinding stimulates ATP hydrolysis. This allosteric coupling is poorly understood. Here we present the crystal structure of an intact Hsp70 from Escherichia coli in an ATP-bound state at 1.96 Å resolution. NBD-ATP adopts a unique conformation, forming extensive interfaces with a radically changed SBD that has its α-helical lid displaced and the polypeptide-binding channel of its β-subdomain restructured. These conformational changes together with our biochemical tests provide a long-sought structural explanation for allosteric coupling in Hsp70 activity.

Classic Hsp70 chaperones assist in diverse processes of protein folding and translocation, and Hsp110s had seemed by sequence to be distant relatives within an Hsp70 superfamily. The 2.4 A resolution structure of Sse1 with ATP shows that Hsp110s are indeed Hsp70 relatives, and it provides insight into allosteric coupling between sites for ATP and polypeptide-substrate binding in Hsp70s. Subdomain structures are similar in intact Sse1(ATP) and in the separate Hsp70 domains, but conformational dispositions are radically different. Interfaces between Sse1 domains are extensive, intimate, and conservative in sequence with Hsp70s. We propose that Sse1(ATP) may be an evolutionary vestige of the Hsp70(ATP) state, and an analysis of 64 mutant variants in Sse1 and three Hsp70 homologs supports this hypothesis. An atomic-level understanding of Hsp70 communication between ATP and substrate-binding domains follows. Requirements on Sse1 for yeast viability are in keeping with the distinct function of Hsp110s as nucleotide exchange factors.

BiP, an essential and ubiquitous Hsp70 chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum, plays a key role in protein folding and quality control. BiP contains two functional domains: a nucleotide binding domain (NBD) and a substrate-binding domain (SBD). NBD binds and hydrolyzes ATP; the substrates for SBD are extended polypeptides. ATP binding allosterically accelerates polypeptide binding and release. Although crucial to the chaperone activity, the molecular mechanisms of polypeptide binding and allosteric coupling of BiP are poorly understood. Here we present crystal structures of an intact human BiP in the ATP-bound state, the first intact eukaryotic Hsp70 structure, and isolated BiP SBD with a peptide substrate bound representing the ADP-bound state. These structures and our biochemical analysis demonstrate that BiP has a unique NBD-SBD interface that is highly conserved only in eukaryotic Hsp70s found in the cytosol and ER to fortify its ATP-bound state to promote the opening of its polypeptide-binding pocket.

Inflammasome is a multiprotein complex consisting of Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NALP 3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), and caspase-1 or 5, which functions to switch on the inflammatory process. The present study hypothesized that the formation and activation of NALP3 inflammasomes turn on podocyte injury leading to glomerulosclerosis during hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys). RT-PCR and Western blot analysis demonstrated that murine podocytes expressed three essential components of NALP3 inflammasome complex, namely, NALP3, ASC and caspase-1. Treatment of podocytes with L-homocysteine (L-Hcys) induced the formation of NALP3 inflammasome complex, increase in caspase-1 activity, podocyte cytoskeleton rearrangement and decreased production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) from podocytes, which were all blocked by silencing the ASC gene or inhibiting caspase-1 activity. In mice with hHcys induced by feeding them a folate-free (FF) diet, NALP3 inflammasome formation and activation in glomerular podocytes were detected at an early stage, as shown by confocal microscopy, size exclusion chromatography of the assembled inflammasome complex and increased interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production in glomeruli. Locally silencing the ASC gene in the kidney significantly reduced NALP3 inflammasome formation and IL-1β production in glomeruli of mice with hHcys. Pathologically, hHcys-associated albuminuria, foot process effacement of podocytes, loss of podocyte slit diaphragm molecules, and glomerulosclerosis at the late stage were significantly improved by local ASC gene silencing or by caspase-1 inhibition. In conclusion, NALP3 inflammasome formation and activation upon stimulation of Hcys is an important molecular mechanism triggering podocyte injury and ultimately resulting in glomerulosclerosis in hHcys.

Hsp70 of the mitochondrial matrix (mtHsp70) provides a critical driving force for the import of proteins into mitochondria. Tim44, a peripheral inner-membrane protein, tethers it to the import channel. Here, regulated interactions were found to maximize occupancy of the active, adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-bound mtHsp70 at the channel through its intrinsic high affinity for Tim44, as well as through release of adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-bound mtHsp70 from Tim44 by the cofactor Mge1. A model peptide substrate rapidly released mtHsp70 from Tim44, even in the absence of ATP hydrolysis. In vivo, the analogous interaction of translocating polypeptide would release mtHsp70 from the channel. Consistent with the ratchet model of translocation, subsequent hydrolysis of ATP would trap the polypeptide, driving import by preventing its movement back toward the cytosol.

Aim: Our previous studies have shown that NOD-like receptor protein (NALP3) inflammasome activation is importantly involved in podocyte dysfunction and glomerular sclerosis induced by hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys). The present study was designed to test whether nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase-mediated redox signaling contributes to homocysteine (Hcys)-induced activation of NALP3 inflammasomes, an intracellular inflammatory machinery in podocytes in vitro and in vivo. Results: In vitro confocal microscopy and size-exclusion chromatography revealed that upon NADPH oxidase inhibition by gp91 phox siRNA, gp91ds-tat peptide, diphenyleneiodonium, or apocynin, aggregation of inflammasome proteins NALP3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), and caspase-1 was significantly attenuated in mouse podocytes. This NADPH oxidase inhibition also resulted in diminished Hcys-induced inflammasome activation, evidenced by reduced caspase-1 activity and interleukin-1b production. Similar findings were observed in vivo where gp91phox -/ -mice and mice receiving a gp91ds-tat treatment exhibited markedly reduced inflammasome formation and activation. Further, in vivo NADPH oxidase inhibition protected the glomeruli and podocytes from hHcys-induced injury as shown by attenuated proteinuria, albuminuria, and glomerular sclerotic changes. This might be attributed to the fact that gp91phox -/ -and gp91ds-tat-treated mice had abolished infiltration of macrophages and T-cells into the glomeruli during hHcys. Innovation: Our study for the first time links NADPH oxidase to the formation and activation of NALP3 inflammasomes in podocytes. Conclusion: Hcys-induced NADPH oxidase activation is importantly involved in the switching on of NALP3 inflammasomes within podocytes, which leads to the downstream recruitment of immune cells, ultimately resulting in glomerular injury and sclerosis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 18, 1537-1548.

Hyperpolarization-activated cAMP-regulated (HCN) channels play important physiological roles in both cardiovascular and central nervous systems. Among the four HCN isoforms, HCN2 and HCN4 show high expression levels in the human heart, with HCN4 being the major cardiac isoform. The previously published crystal structure of the mouse HCN2 (mHCN2) C-terminal fragment, including the C-linker and the cyclic-nucleotide binding domain (CNBD), has provided many insights into cAMP-dependent gating in HCN channels. However, structures of other mammalian HCN channel isoforms have been lacking. Here we used a combination of approaches including structural biology, biochemistry, and electrophysiology to study cAMP-dependent gating in HCN4 channel. First we solved the crystal structure of the C-terminal fragment of human HCN4 (hHCN4) channel at 2.4 Å . Overall we observed a high similarity between mHCN2 and hHCN4 crystal structures. Functional comparison between two isoforms revealed that compared with mHCN2, the hHCN4 protein exhibited marked different contributions to channel function, such as a ϳ3-fold reduction in the response to cAMP. Guided by structural differences in the loop region between ␤4 and ␤5 strands, we identified residues that could partially account for the differences in response to cAMP between mHCN2 and hHCN4 proteins. Moreover, upon cAMP binding, the hHCN4 C-terminal protein exerts a much prolonged effect in channel deactivation that could have significant physiological contributions.

Background: Hsp110, an Hsp70 homolog, is highly efficient in preventing protein aggregation but lacks the folding activity seen in Hsp70s. Results: In contrast to Hsp70s, Hsp110s exhibit distinct peptide substrate binding properties. Conclusion:The peptide substrate binding properties determine the chaperone activity differences between Hsp70s and Hsp110s. Significance: Our studies shed light on the molecular mechanism of the chaperone activities of Hsp70s and Hsp110s.