Apoptosis depends upon the activation of intracellular caspases which are classically induced by either an intrinsic (mitochondrial based) or extrinsic (cytokine) pathway. However, in the process of explaining how endotoxin activated monocytes are able to induce apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells when co-cultured, we uncovered a transcellular apoptosis inducing pathway that utilizes caspase-1 containing microvesicles. Endotoxin stimulated monocytes induce the cell death of VSMCs but this activity is found in 100,000 g pellets of cell free supernatants of these monocytes. This activity is not a direct effect of endotoxin, and is inhibited by the caspase-1 inhibitor YVADcmk but not by inhibitors of Fas-L, IL-1β and IL-18. Importantly, the apoptosis inducing activity co-purifies with 100 nm sized microvesicles as determined by TEM of the pellets. These microvesicles contain caspase-1 and caspase-1 encapsulation is required since disruption of microvesicular integrity destroys the apoptotic activity but not the caspase-1 enzymatic activity. Thus, monocytes are capable of delivering a cell death message which depends upon the release of microvesicles containing functional caspase-1. This transcellular apoptosis induction pathway describes a novel pathway for inflammation induced programmed cell death.

BackgroundMetastasis is the primary cause of death for cancer patients. TWIST1, an evolutionarily conserved basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor, is a strong promoter of metastatic spread and its expression is elevated in many advanced human carcinomas. However, the molecular events triggered by TWIST1 to motivate dissemination of cancer cells are largely unknown.ResultsHere we show that TWIST1 induces the production of interleukin 8 (IL8), which activates matrix metalloproteinases and promotes invasion of breast epithelial and cancer cells. In this novel mechanism, TWIST1-mediated IL8 transcription is induced through the TWIST1 carboxy-terminal WR (Trp-Arg) domain instead of the classic DNA binding bHLH domain. Co-immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that the WR domain mediates the formation of a protein complex comprised of TWIST1 and the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) subunit RELA (p65/NF-κB3), which synergistically activates the transcriptional activity of NF-κB. This activation leads to increased DNA binding affinity of RELA to the IL8 promoter and thus induces the expression of the cytokine. Blockage of IL8 signaling by IL8 neutralizing antibodies or receptor inhibition reduced the invasiveness of both breast epithelial and cancer cells, indicating that TWIST1 induces autonomous cell invasion by establishing an IL8 antocrine loop.ConclusionsOur data demonstrate that the TWIST1 WR domain plays a critical role in TWIST1-induced IL8 expression through interactions with and activation of NF-κB. The produced IL8 signals through an autocrine loop and promotes extracellular matrix degradation to enable cell invasion across the basement membrane.

Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production by natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic lymphocytes is a key component of innate and adaptive immune responses. Because inhibitor of κB-ζ (IκBζ), a Toll-like receptor (TLR)/interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) inducible transcription factor, regulates IFN-γ production in KG-1 cells, we tested IκBζ's role in the classic lymphocyte pathway of IL-12/IL-18–induced IFN-γ. Upon stimulation with IL-12/IL-18, monocyte-depleted human peripheral blood lymphocytes expressed the 79-kDa form of IκBζ and released IFN-γ. CD56+ NK cells were shown to be the IκBζ-producing lymphocyte subpopulation, which also released abundant IFN-γ in response to IL-12/IL-18. Importantly, IκBζ was undetectable in CD56− lymphocytes where IFN-γ release was 10-fold lower. In addition, small interfering RNA knockdown of IκBζ suppressed IFN-γ expression in CD56+ cells. The association of IκBζ with the IFN-γ promoter was documented by chromatin immunoprecipitation. IFN-γ promoter activity from IκBζ overexpression was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay. Finally, IκBζ coprecipitated with p65 and p50 NF-κB in NK cells in response to IL-12/IL-18, suggesting that IκBζ's effects on IFN-γ promoter activity are coregulated by NF-κB. These results suggest that IκBζ functions as an important regulator of IFN-γ in human NK cells, further expanding the class of IκBζ-modulated genes.

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), are multipotent cells that give rise to multiple lineages including osteoblasts, adipocytes, muscle, and fibroblasts. MSCs are useful for clinical applications such as cell therapy because they can be isolated from an individual and expanded for use in tissue repair, as well as other therapeutic applications, without immune rejection. However, one of the key problems in the use of MSCs for these applications is the efficiency of these cells to engraft and fully regenerate damaged tissues. Therefore, to optimize this process, a comprehensive understanding of the key regulators of MSCs self-renewal and maintenance are critical to the success of future cell therapy as well as other clinical applications. The basic helix loop helix transcription factor, Twist, plays a master regulatory role in all of these processes and, therefore, a thorough understanding of the mechanistic insights in the role of Twist in lineage specification/differentiation and tumorigenesis is vital to the success of future clinical applications for the therapeutic use of MSCs. In this article, we highlight the basic mechanisms and signaling pathways that are important to MSC fate, maintenance, and differentiation, as well as the critical role that Twist plays in these processes. In addition, we review the known literature suggesting a critical role for Twist in the generation of cancer stem cells, as this information may contribute to a broader understanding of stem cell biology and stem-cell-based therapeutics.

Although much is known about classic IFNγ inducers, little is known about the IFNγ inducing capability of inflammasome-activated monocytes. In this study, supernatants from LPS/ATPstimulated human monocytes were analyzed for their ability to induce IFNγ production by KG-1 cells. Unexpectedly, monocyte-derived IFNγ inducing activity was detected, but it was completely inhibited by IL-1β, not IL-18 blockade. Moreover, size-fractionation of the monocyte conditioned media dramatically reduced the IFNγ inducing activity of IL-1β, suggesting that IL-1β requires a cofactor to induce IFNγ production in KG-1 cells. Because TNFα is known to synergize with IL-1β for various gene products, it was studied as the putative IL-1β synergizing factor. Although recombinant TNFα (rTNFα) alone had no IFNγ inducing activity, neutralization of TNFα in the monocyte conditioned media inhibited the IFNγ inducing activity. Furthermore, rTNFα restored the IFNγ inducing activity of the size-fractionated IL-1β. Finally, rTNFα synergized with rIL-1β, as well as with rIL-1α and rIL-18, for KG-1 IFNγ release. These studies demonstrate a synergistic role between TNFα and IL-1 family members in the induction of IFNγ production and give caution to interpretations of KG-1 functional assays designed to detect functional IL-18.

IκBζ is a novel member of the IκB family of NFκB regulators, which modulates NFκB activity in the nucleus, rather than controlling its nuclear translocation. IκBζ is specifically induced by IL-1β and several TLR ligands and positively regulates NFκB-mediated transcription of genes such as IL-6 and NGAL as an NFκB binding co-factor. We recently reported that the IL-1 family cytokines, IL-1β and IL-18, strongly synergize with TNFα for IFNγ production in KG-1 cells, whereas the same cytokines alone have minimal effects on IFNγ production. Given the striking similarities between the IL-1R and IL-18R signaling pathways we hypothesized that a common signaling event or gene product downstream of these receptors is responsible for the observed synergy. We investigated IκBζ protein expression in KG-1 cells upon stimulation with IL-1β, IL-18 and TNFα. Our results demonstrated that IL-18, as well as IL-1β, induced moderate IκBζ expression in KG-1 cells. However, TNFα synergized with IL-1β and IL-18, whereas by itself it had a minimal effect on IκBζ expression. NFκB inhibition resulted in decreased IL-1β/IL-18/TNFα-stimulated IFNγ release. Moreover, silencing of IκBζ expression led to a specific decrease in IFNγ production. Overall, our data suggests that IκBζ positively regulates NFκB-mediated IFNγ production in KG-1 cells.

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IFNγ and caspase-1 have a reciprocal relationship. INFγ induces caspase-1 expression but caspase-1 is critical to the activation of the INFγ inducing factor IL-18. To investigate the INFγ inducing function of caspase-1 we characterized the INFγ inducing activity produced in response to caspase-1 activation (LPS + ATP) of human monocytes. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that IL-18 is not alone as an INFγ inducing product of caspase-1. Purified monocytes were stimulated with LPS/ATP and supernatants analyzed for IL-1β and IL-18 release, as well as for their ability to induce IFN-γ release by KG-1 cells. Monocytes released IL-1β and IL-18, as well as an IFN-γ inducing factor. The IFN-γ inducing activity was enhanced with ATP added to LPS and suppressed by a caspase-1 inhibitor, consistent with a caspase-1 regulated factor. However, the IFN-γ inducing activity was neutralized by IL-1β, not IL-18, blocking agents. In contrast, KG-1 cells released IFN-γ in response to rIL-18, not rIL-1β. When supernatants were fractionated by gel filtration, IL-18 eluted at a high molecular weight peak, indicating that it may be complexed to an inhibitory protein. IL-1β eluted at a single molecular weight peak corresponding to its mature form. However, the IL-1β and IL-18 peaks had minimal IFN-γ inducing activity. Taken together, these findings suggest that IL-1β is required, but not sufficient for the induction of IFNγ production. Support: NIH R01 HL 746767 and HL 40871, F31 AI 061828-02